Category: Books

Edwin T. Atkinson is the first author who researched on the Khas people when dealing with the people of the North-Western Himalayas. His book, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, Vol II (Allahabad, North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press, 1884), which forms Volume XI of The Gazetteer, brings forward many important facts about the Khas people that he discovered during his research.

The book of Edwin T. Atkinson starts with a remarkable preface. It is divided into ten impressive chapters. Chapters III to VII are devoted to some key aspects of the history of the Western Himalayas. Here he talks about Khasas, Bhotiyas and other immigrants living in the hills and mountains in the background of Vaidik geography, Pauranik ethnography, mythology and the history of different periods. It includes references on the Kumaon invasion of the Gorkhalis. The next three chapters explore religions in the Western Himalayas including Kumaon’s specialty in this regard. Here he tries to explain Himalayan Buddhism and Hinduism being practised by the local people.

The book maintains that the Khasas, also called Khasiyas, are the principal inhabitants of the regions to the west of Kashmir, of Kashmir itself and of the hill country as far as Nepal and of a considerable part of the plains. Explaining extensive Vedic, Pauranik and historical sources, Atkinosn speaks about their historical continuity to this day. Relying on Pliny’s account, he claims that while the Khasas occupied the country far to the west of their present location in Kumaon and Nepal, the Kiratakas with the Tanganas held the country between the Tons and the Sarda.

Atkinson is clear in his opinion that the Nagas, Kiratas and Khasas entered the Western Himalayas by the same route as the Aryas. In addition, he makes a point that theKiratas were the first to arrive in the Himalayas. The Nagas followed them. They were then followed by the Khasas. Taking the clue from Latin, Greek and Sanskrit sources, Atkinson concludes that there is a fairly connected history of the people and the country from the very earliest times. He defends his finding by arguing that the local inscriptions and the records of Nepal fill up many a gap and confirm his analysis.

The Khas people are Aryan people. They have different sub-groups. Yet they are different from other Aryans in their religious and cultural observances. Atkinson states that the name ‘Khasa’ like the name ‘Naga’ is of far too wide significance to be that of a single tribe.  He also discusses in the book the question of the connection between the Khasas and Katyuri rulers in Kumaon and the Kho people and Kator rulers in Kashkara at the western end of the Himalaya beyond Kashmir. He says: “the Khasiyas of Kumaon have as much right to be called an Aryan race in its widest sense as many others with a more established name, but the fact that they have not yet come up to their plains brethren in caste and religious observances still excludes them from the ranks of the twice-born.”

The Khas people have thus been described by Atkinson as one of the distinct inhabitants of the North-western provinces. Talking about the population of Kumaon and Garhwal, he describes how the inhabitants belong to the Khasa race and speak a dialect which to him sounds like Hindi. They are different not only of the Mongoloid inhabitants with him they share their land, but also from the Hindus who live in the plains. In recent years, states Atkinson, although these people have their beliefs grounded in the ideals of Hinduism, they sometimes are repugnant of its orthodox ceremonial usages.

No matter their origins, about which he is not quite clear, they have heavily been influenced by the Brahmanical priesthood. By this specification, he means the versions of Hinduism, based on four castes, and a process by which people of other Hindu caste, or tribal or other groups, change their customs, ritual ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice-born caste. The Khas people, notes Atkinson, are increasingly being Brahmanized, which in turn ensures the workings of orthodoxy.

Atkinson’s analysis of religion in the Western Himalayas is also revealing. On the basis of the study of nearly one thousand temples, and the analysis of the forms worshipped in them, he finds that “Buddhism, though nominally dead, yet lives and is still the faith of the masses.” Both Buddhism and Sivaism are being practised in the Western Himalayas. There is a strange melange at work. As Atkinson finds, “Buddhism has been absorbed by Sivaismand that both have been influenced to such a degree by the polydaemonistic cults of the aboriginal tribes as to preserve little of their original structure.

This mingling of the pre-Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Animistic conceptions has given us the existing Hinduism of the masses, and has had even a considerable influence in moulding the tenets of the more esoteric schools.” The author asserts that the history of the Hindu people is laced with fiction, making it hard to distinguish between what is the truth and what is simply made up. However, he also recognizes that without these accounts from Hindu writers, it is hard to derive the history of the local people.  

As Atkinson dives into the history of the Himalayas, he talks about how the Himachal was believed to be the inhabitation of the gods themselves. Many sought residence in these areas in order to be closer to the gods. More importantly, the peaks, pools, and waterfalls became the sacred places to embrace priesthood and of pilgrimage in the minds of the Hindus. Many pilgrims from all over India visit and settle in Garhwal, where there are Hindu shrines of Keddrnath and Badrinath. The intermingling of indigenous groups and Hindus from other parts of India is further seen as some of these immigrants marry daughters of princes of the hills. The Bhotiyas that occupy the inter-alpine valleys of Bhot call the people of the lower hills ‘Khasiyas.’ Therefore, Atkinson points out that the region makes up the diverse population together with the immigrants, the Khasiyas and the Bhotiyas.

The author also discusses how in the epic Mahabharata, the Pandavas conquered the Utsavasankatas, or the seven tribes of Dasyus that inhabited the mountains. The Dasyus were said to be the degraded members of the Aryan clan because of their lack of intercourse with Brahmans and their refusal to the Brahmanical customs and practices. During the fight, it is said that Saineya, the charioteer of Krishna, spilled the blood and cut the flesh of thousands of Dasyus.

The author claims that the Mahabharata also mentions the Bahikas called Arattasthat live in contemporary Punjab. There was said to be the swelling of degraded Brahmans, also known today as the Prajapati. According to the holy book, these Brahmans had no Veda or Vedic ceremony nor sacrifice. Since they were considered to be servile, the gods apparently did not eat the food they offered. Among these shunned Brahmans of the Punjab were also the Khasas, which demonstrates that perhaps they originated in the hilly regions of Nepal from a more westerly region than Kumaon. The author also claims that orthodox writings have viewed the Khasas as “heretical members” of the Aryan family, rather than outcasts, and an important tribe of the Western Himalayas.

The first two chapters in Atkinson’s book are devoted to the vertebrate and invertebrate animals in the regions. They take stock of the important species providing interesting notes on mammalian. The list of birds is attractive. There is also a compilation of  the list of reptiles and land and fresh water shells. The author talks about the various kinds of animals, like the murina formosa, a yellow bat, and the frionodon pardicolor, a tiger, that live in the diverse regions of Nepal. He talks about the ailurus fulgens, a red cat bear with a distinct red colour of the head that is found in the Terai region of Nepal. He writes that the bear primarily eats ants, fruits, roots, and honey. He also mentions the Nepal hawk-eagle,limnaetus nipalensis, and the Nepal brown wood owl, syrnium newarense, which are thought to be very rare. They may make a very interesting read to zoologists of Nepal.

Edwin T. Atkinson is the first author who researched on the Khas people when dealing with the people of the North-Western Himalayas. His book, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, Vol II (Allahabad, North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press, 1884), which forms Volume XI of The Gazetteer, brings forward many important facts about the Khas people that he discovered during his research.

The book of Edwin T. Atkinson starts with a remarkable preface. It is divided into ten impressive chapters. Chapters III to VII are devoted to some key aspects of the history of the Western Himalayas. Here he talks about Khasas, Bhotiyas and other immigrants living in the hills and mountains in the background of Vaidik geography, Pauranik ethnography, mythology and the history of different periods. It includes references on the Kumaon invasion of the Gorkhalis. The next three chapters explore religions in the Western Himalayas including Kumaon’s specialty in this regard. Here he tries to explain Himalayan Buddhism and Hinduism being practised by the local people.

The book maintains that the Khasas, also called Khasiyas, are the principal inhabitants of the regions to the west of Kashmir, of Kashmir itself and of the hill country as far as Nepal and of a considerable part of the plains. Explaining extensive Vedic, Pauranik and historical sources, Atkinosn speaks about their historical continuity to this day. Relying on Pliny’s account, he claims that while the Khasas occupied the country far to the west of their present location in Kumaon and Nepal, the Kiratakas with the Tanganas held the country between the Tons and the Sarda.

Atkinson is clear in his opinion that the Nagas, Kiratas and Khasas entered the Western Himalayas by the same route as the Aryas. In addition, he makes a point that theKiratas were the first to arrive in the Himalayas. The Nagas followed them. They were then followed by the Khasas. Taking the clue from Latin, Greek and Sanskrit sources, Atkinson concludes that there is a fairly connected history of the people and the country from the very earliest times. He defends his finding by arguing that the local inscriptions and the records of Nepal fill up many a gap and confirm his analysis.

The Khas people are Aryan people. They have different sub-groups. Yet they are different from other Aryans in their religious and cultural observances. Atkinson states that the name ‘Khasa’ like the name ‘Naga’ is of far too wide significance to be that of a single tribe.  He also discusses in the book the question of the connection between the Khasas and Katyuri rulers in Kumaon and the Kho people and Kator rulers in Kashkara at the western end of the Himalaya beyond Kashmir. He says: “the Khasiyas of Kumaon have as much right to be called an Aryan race in its widest sense as many others with a more established name, but the fact that they have not yet come up to their plains brethren in caste and religious observances still excludes them from the ranks of the twice-born.”

The Khas people have thus been described by Atkinson as one of the distinct inhabitants of the North-western provinces. Talking about the population of Kumaon and Garhwal, he describes how the inhabitants belong to the Khasa race and speak a dialect which to him sounds like Hindi. They are different not only of the Mongoloid inhabitants with him they share their land, but also from the Hindus who live in the plains. In recent years, states Atkinson, although these people have their beliefs grounded in the ideals of Hinduism, they sometimes are repugnant of its orthodox ceremonial usages.

No matter their origins, about which he is not quite clear, they have heavily been influenced by the Brahmanical priesthood. By this specification, he means the versions of Hinduism, based on four castes, and a process by which people of other Hindu caste, or tribal or other groups, change their customs, ritual ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently twice-born caste. The Khas people, notes Atkinson, are increasingly being Brahmanized, which in turn ensures the workings of orthodoxy.

Atkinson’s analysis of religion in the Western Himalayas is also revealing. On the basis of the study of nearly one thousand temples, and the analysis of the forms worshipped in them, he finds that “Buddhism, though nominally dead, yet lives and is still the faith of the masses.” Both Buddhism and Sivaism are being practised in the Western Himalayas. There is a strange melange at work. As Atkinson finds, “Buddhism has been absorbed by Sivaismand that both have been influenced to such a degree by the polydaemonistic cults of the aboriginal tribes as to preserve little of their original structure.

This mingling of the pre-Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Animistic conceptions has given us the existing Hinduism of the masses, and has had even a considerable influence in moulding the tenets of the more esoteric schools.” The author asserts that the history of the Hindu people is laced with fiction, making it hard to distinguish between what is the truth and what is simply made up. However, he also recognizes that without these accounts from Hindu writers, it is hard to derive the history of the local people.  

As Atkinson dives into the history of the Himalayas, he talks about how the Himachal was believed to be the inhabitation of the gods themselves. Many sought residence in these areas in order to be closer to the gods. More importantly, the peaks, pools, and waterfalls became the sacred places to embrace priesthood and of pilgrimage in the minds of the Hindus. Many pilgrims from all over India visit and settle in Garhwal, where there are Hindu shrines of Keddrnath and Badrinath. The intermingling of indigenous groups and Hindus from other parts of India is further seen as some of these immigrants marry daughters of princes of the hills. The Bhotiyas that occupy the inter-alpine valleys of Bhot call the people of the lower hills ‘Khasiyas.’ Therefore, Atkinson points out that the region makes up the diverse population together with the immigrants, the Khasiyas and the Bhotiyas.

The author also discusses how in the epic Mahabharata, the Pandavas conquered the Utsavasankatas, or the seven tribes of Dasyus that inhabited the mountains. The Dasyus were said to be the degraded members of the Aryan clan because of their lack of intercourse with Brahmans and their refusal to the Brahmanical customs and practices. During the fight, it is said that Saineya, the charioteer of Krishna, spilled the blood and cut the flesh of thousands of Dasyus.

The author claims that the Mahabharata also mentions the Bahikas called Arattasthat live in contemporary Punjab. There was said to be the swelling of degraded Brahmans, also known today as the Prajapati. According to the holy book, these Brahmans had no Veda or Vedic ceremony nor sacrifice. Since they were considered to be servile, the gods apparently did not eat the food they offered. Among these shunned Brahmans of the Punjab were also the Khasas, which demonstrates that perhaps they originated in the hilly regions of Nepal from a more westerly region than Kumaon. The author also claims that orthodox writings have viewed the Khasas as “heretical members” of the Aryan family, rather than outcasts, and an important tribe of the Western Himalayas.

The first two chapters in Atkinson’s books are devoted to the vertebrate and invertebrate animals in the regions. They take stock of the important species providing interesting notes on mammalian. The list of birds is attractive. There is also a compilation of the list of reptiles and land and fresh water shells. The author talks about the various kinds of animals, like the murina formosa, a yellow bat, and the frionodon pardicolor, a tiger, that live in the diverse regions of Nepal. He talks about the ailurus fulgens, a red cat bear with a distinct red colour of the head that is found in the Terai region of Nepal. He writes that the bear primarily eats ants, fruits, roots, and honey. He also mentions the Nepal hawk-eagle,limnaetus nipalensis, and the Nepal brown wood owl, syrnium newarense, which are thought to be very rare. They may make a very interesting read to zoologists of Nepal.

The book of Major General Brahma Shamsher Nepalko Maha Bhukampa 1990 [Kathmandu, 1935] presents graphic accounts of the great earthquake of 1934. This earthquake was not only powerful, but also the most destructive of all the earthquakes in the living memory of Nepal.

As Nepal is in the seismic zone, earthquakes are not uncommon in this land. The earthquake of June 7, 1255, which is regarded as the first recorded earthquake in the history of Nepal, has is believed to have claimed nearly one third of the total population of Kathmandu. King Abahya Malla was one of them. Similarly, another mighty earthquake was recorded in 1260 during the reign of King Jayadev. It was also as destructive as the 1255 earthquake. There was a huge loss of life and an epidemic and famine after the earthquake. Many buildings and temples collapsed this time as well. The history of Nepal describes the destruction of the temple of Rato Matchendranath by the earthquake of 1408 when Shyam Singh was the King. Another earthquake of 1681 at the reign of King Sri Niwas Malla is also said to have been as devastating. In the months of June and July of 1767, an additional earthquake of significant intensity was recorded. There must have been many other devastating earthquakes in every century. But there are no written records. It is only the 1934 earthquake that has been addressed by a book, for which Major General Brahma Shamsher must be thanked.

According to Brahma Shamsher, the first shock of 1934 earthquake broke out on 16 January. It had been raining the days and nights before. The early morning brought with it heavy fogs, even though the sun shone at 60 degrees, and people were sitting in their gardens, rooftops, and streets, trying to feel its warmth. The celebration from yesterday’s makar samkranti, the Hindu festival marking the transition of the Sun into makar (capricorn)rashi on its celestial path, still clung in the air. Women had been fasting and performing various observances due to the aunsi the following Monday, while men worked in the fields. Government workers were busy in their offices, while the marketplace swarmed with villagers bringing in fresh produce to sell to city people. It was definitely a beautiful day.

Exactly at 2:24:22 pm, there was a strong rumbling in the ground as it began to shake; the infamous earthquake of 16 January 1934 was taking place. Like the waves of the water, the earth moved from the east to the west. In the second stage, the ground seemed to be twisting as houses and electricity poles collapsed. The tops of trees seemed to bend to meet the ground. The waters from ponds and buckets spilled, as if giant waves were at play. As if caused by the winds, the doors and windows of houses began to open and shut, if they were not collapsing with the sounds of firing tanks. Dust rose to obstruct what little sunlight there was.

People began running towards open spaces. Some stood still as they couldn’t find something to hold onto, while others crawled on all fours to get away. Some ran towards corners, and some ran to their gardens or fields. Mothers ran inside to retrieve their forgotten children, only to be killed by the crumbling buildings. Like trees cut down with axes, Dharahara and Ghantaghar both parted down the middle, breaking into large chunks. Nobody saw it coming. Despite the darkness from the dust, panic caused people, crying out to God to save them, to run for their lives. The mélange of these sounds created a panicked environment.

However, even the ones that ran were not guaranteed safety, as narrow gullies and smaller roads were very risky. Thousands died at the mercy of the collapsing buildings, thousands were wounded, and the soldiers training in Tundikhel laid face-down as they were unable to stand up. Water poured out from the nine to fifty meter cracks in the fields and roads, as rivers, including the Bagmati and Bishnumati, flooded, some reaching as high as seven to ten feet. In Balaju and Sankhamul, parts of roads caved in by a couple feet.

The earthquake was horrible. As it subsided, family members began looking for one another, screaming each other’s names in the streets. People started running towards their houses, digging through the rubbles to find their buried relatives, some dead and others calling for help. It’s hard to imagine the fear and trauma that went through people’s heads. Survivors gathered in Tundikhel and open spaces, crying out to each other. The king was in the Nagarjun hills when the earthquake took place. Two daughters of the king and the prime minister’s granddaughter were found to be dead.

Brahma Shamsher, who wrote this book in Nepali, lauds the role of the national army in the post-earthquake situation. They were quick to gather to receive instructions from the authority and disperse into the city for the purpose of rescue. It is hard to fathom what went through their hearts as they saved others, no matter what happened to their own families and houses. These soldiers were loyal to their country and followed instructions determinedly. Indeed, they rescued many people from under the rubbles.

People who were injured or homeless went to hospital grounds for medical attention and shelter. Mothers bearing dead children arrived, hoping against hope that the doctors could somehow revive their children. Those on duty attended to those injured, even though common people were attempting to help each other.

In many places, fires broke out due to the crumbling timbers used in the buildings; however, the fires were controlled because of weak winds. Traditional edible oil plants at Khokana also caught on fire but were maintained as well. In Pharping, the only power house of the country was damaged and shut down because of the earthquake.

For somebody awaking from unconsciousness, the world seemed to be ending in total destruction. Every person, birds, and animals seemed to be screaming in pain. Even an animal like a tiny rat could not escape the destruction and died under the rubbles. The author asks the readers to picture the unfortunate mother who tried helplessly to clear the debris to uncover her son whose dying voice carries through “aamaa!.” He also asks to imagine the orphan who lost his 11-member family as his home collapsed, or think of the 15-year-old young Bahuni widow who beat her chest with her fists, mourning the death of her husband. In the rubbles, somebody’s head was split wide open, or somebody’s hand was broken. People were still missing, while others were being dug out.

Corpses laid around the house, awaiting cremation. There were no shops where one could buy cloth to wrap the dead or wood for cremation. People make-did with the pieces of broken wood and timbers from their own homes. The father was dead, but the son did not have the razor to shave his own head or a new set of mourning clothes to wear for performing after-death rituals. The priest did not have the holy book with the instruction for cremation. The cremation location was also crowded with corpses, and people were struggling for their turns. Those who could not afford to cremate amicably resorted to disposing their dead in the Bagmati river. One cannot begin to describe the devastation of the animals.

The whole city was destroyed. Many of the people were assembled at Tundikhelbecause of lack of shelter. They all feared the winter rain which was very likely. No matter how rich or poor, they gathered together in fields or open spaces for the night. Thousands of people had no shelter at all. Because the Nagarjun palace had also broken down, the king was forced to stay in a tent. Only a few could afford anything to eat. Water taps began to clog because of cold. The whole night, people experienced countless aftershocks of the earthquake. That night passed painfully.

The day after, many people emerged alive from the debris because of the effort of the soldiers. Forty to fifty people were buried in one place. Officers went to different villages to assess the situation. An earthquake volunteer named Premraj, has been quoted by the author as saying: “Among the places I visited, the scenes of the Sanagaun and Lubhutown were most heartbreaking. From the 1500 to 2000 roofs that existed previously, in these places, not even four or five remained. When before, the settlement was full of roofs withjhingati tiles, now it appeared to be a naked, battered hill.”

The town of Birgunj was also destroyed. The sole telephone line between Kathmandu and Birjung was disconnected, which led to horse-riders being sent to disseminate rescue and relief information. The light railway of the Nepal Government was also a victim of the destruction.

Aftershocks were quite common. On the third day, there was another big earthquake. The trauma was intensified. For three or four days, chaos prevailed. However, gradually, it lessened as people began to adapt to the earthquake.

It has been said the earthquake of magnitude 8.4 Richter scale in 1934 claimed 8519 people’s lives, destroyed 80893 buildings, and severely damaged 126355 more houses. At that time, the government spent Rs 2,06,500 through the earthquake relief fund in Kathmandu valley alone. The earthquake relief fund established by the king offered loans to those affected throughout the country.

It must be noted that Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher JBR, a hereditary executive, left no stone unturned to announce the relief efforts after the earthquake of 1934 and cater to the people in need for years later. He was able to do everything that was possible at that moment. In fact, his Kharibot speech to the nation, in which he explained to the common people in 1938 how the government tackled the devastation, provided relief to the earthquake victims and affected people, started the process of reconstruction and re-aroused the passion of a nation that almost collapsed, is still a living testament of Nepal’s capacity for disaster management. The issue for the future generation is whether it has learnt anything from that experience.